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Cobia

Rachycentron canadum

Rachycentron canadum (Cobia)
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Distribution
Distribution map: Rachycentron canadum (Cobia)

least concern



Information


Author: Maria Filipa Castanheira
Version: B | 1.1 (2022-01-22)


Reviewers: Pablo Arechavala-Lopez, Jenny Volstorf
Editor: Billo Heinzpeter Studer

Initial release: 2017-06-21
Version information:
  • Appearance: B
  • Last minor update: 2022-01-22

Cite as: »Castanheira, Maria Filipa. 2022. Rachycentron canadum (WelfareCheck | farm). In: fair-fish database, ed. fair-fish. World Wide Web electronic publication. First published 2017-06-21. Version B | 1.1. https://fair-fish-database.net.«





WelfareScore | farm

Rachycentron canadum
LiPoCe
Criteria
Home range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Depth range
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Migration
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Reproduction
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggregation
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Aggression
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Substrate
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Stress
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Malformations
score-li
score-po
score-ce
Slaughter
score-li
score-po
score-ce


Legend

Condensed assessment of the species' likelihood and potential for good fish welfare in aquaculture, based on ethological findings for 10 crucial criteria.

  • Li = Likelihood that the individuals of the species experience good welfare under minimal farming conditions
  • Po = Potential of the individuals of the species to experience good welfare under high-standard farming conditions
  • Ce = Certainty of our findings in Likelihood and Potential

WelfareScore = Sum of criteria scoring "High" (max. 10)

score-legend
High
score-legend
Medium
score-legend
Low
score-legend
Unclear
score-legend
No findings



General remarks

Rachycentron canadum is a migratory pelagic species widely distributed in subtropical, tropical, and temperate areas, except for the central and eastern Pacific. Several biological attributes make R. canadum a strong candidate for aquaculture, such as rapid growth, high fillet quality, and high market price. However, many aspects of welfare in rearing conditions have not been addressed yet. In order to optimise fish welfare of this species, improvements in current harvesting practices are needed to meet depth range needs, reproduction without manipulation, aggregation, aggression, and stress reduction.




1  Home range

Many species traverse in a limited horizontal space (even if just for a certain period of time per year); the home range may be described as a species' understanding of its environment (i.e., its cognitive map) for the most important resources it needs access to.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole home range in captivity?

It is unclear for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: circular tanks: 3.6 m diameter 1, 12 m3 2; ponds: <5,000 m2 3.

JUVENILES: WILD: no data found yet. FARMFINGERLINGS nursery ponds: >300 m2 3, FINGERLINGS nursery nets: 600 m3 4; wooden cages: 3 x 3 m 5; circular cages: 300-1,800 m3 (8-16 m diameter) 3 5; trapezoidal-octagon shaped cages: 20-30 m cross-section 4.

ADULTS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 7.5 x 4.5 m 6, 60-80 m3 1 2; ponds: 400-600 m2 3 5.




2  Depth range

Given the availability of resources (food, shelter) or the need to avoid predators, species spend their time within a certain depth range.

What is the probability of providing the species' whole depth range in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a high amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: tanks: 1-1.2 m 3 1.

JUVENILES: WILD: PELAGIC 7, caught at 1.5-4.9 m 8, 5-6 m 9, 31-75 m 10-9, 21.6-72 m, up to 1,080 m 11. FARM: sea cages: 3-15 m 3 4 5 at 27-30 m depth 4.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: PELAGIC 7FARM: tanks: 1-1.5 m 6 3 12.




3  Migration

Some species undergo seasonal changes of environments for different purposes (feeding, spawning, etc.), and to move there, they migrate for more or less extensive distances.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the migrating or habitat-changing behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

OCEANODROMOUS 13 8 7 9 14 15 16 17. EURYHALINE 4.

LARVAE: WILD: PELAGIC 7 14 15 16. Based on distribution in tropical, subtropical, and warm-tempered water 7, estimated 9-15 h PHOTOPERIOD; 18.8-28.8 °C 11, 28-32 °C 2, 20.1-30.0 °C 17, 28.4-34.3 psu 17. FARM: tanks: 28.7-30.1 °C 1, 28-32 °C 2. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.

JUVENILES: WILD: based on distribution in tropical, subtropical, and warm-tempered water 7, estimated 9-15 h PHOTOPERIOD; 18.8-28.8 °C 11, 28-32 °C 2, 20.1-30.0 °C 17, 28.4-34.3 psu 17. In the western Atlantic, migrate inshore in May and leave in autumn to overwintering grounds 18 9. FARM: sea-cages: grow-out takes longer in regions with temperatures down to 16 °C compared to regions with 23.5-28 °C (≤17 versus 11-14 months) 3. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.

ADULTS: ➝ JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: spawning in offshore waters 13 19 20 or inshore 13 18 17. FARM: tanks: 24-30 °C 1, 24-26 °C 2. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.




4  Reproduction

A species reproduces at a certain age, season, and sex ratio and possibly involving courtship rituals.

What is the probability of the species reproducing naturally in captivity without manipulation of theses circumstances?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

WILD: mature at 2-3 years 18 9, spawn April-September 13 18 21 9 22 17 possibly multiple times 18. FARM: 1:2 female:male ratio 2. Simulated natural PHOTOPERIOD and temperature regime induces natural spawning 23 6 24 2. Hormonal stimulation to induce ovulation and spermiation 25 23 24. Spawning tanks with egg collectors 23 6 24.




5  Aggregation

Species differ in the way they co-exist with conspecifics or other species from being solitary to aggregating unstructured, casually roaming in shoals or closely coordinating in schools of varying densities.

What is the probability of providing farming conditions that are compatible with the aggregation behaviour of the species?

It is low for minimal and high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: WILD: no data found yet. FARM: intensive conditions RAS: 30-50 IND/L 5; extensive conditions: 5-10 IND/L 1 2.

JUVENILES: WILD: live solitary or in small groups of 3-4 26 7. FARM: FINGERLINGS nursery nets: 13.3-23.3 IND/m3; grow-out cages: 2-3 kg/m3 2, 2.9-5.2 IND/m3 4; offshore cages: 5-15 kg/m3 3 1.

ADULTS: JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: WILD: form spawning aggregations 18 7 17. FARM: ponds: 100 IND/400-600 m2 3; tanks: 1-2 kg/m3 1.




6  Aggression

There is a range of adverse reactions in species, spanning from being relatively indifferent towards others to defending valuable resources (e.g., food, territory, mates) to actively attacking opponents.

What is the probability of the species being non-aggressive and non-territorial in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: Cannibalistic incidences in FARM 3 27 5 and LAB 1, but might be decreased via tank hydrodynamics 28.

JUVENILES: FARM: aggressive feeders 29 30 31.

ADULTS: FARM:  JUVENILES.

SPAWNERS: FARM: aggressive feeders 32 29, sometimes aggressive courtship 33 12




7  Substrate

Depending on where in the water column the species lives, it differs in interacting with or relying on various substrates for feeding or covering purposes (e.g., plants, rocks and stones, sand and mud).

What is the probability of providing the species' substrate and shelter needs in captivity?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is high for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Eggs and LARVAE: PELAGIC 7. FARM: for details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.

JUVENILESWILD: often seen in the vicinity of buoys, fishing piers and over artificial reefs 9, caught over bottom with mud, rock, gravel, sand 11. FARM:  LARVAE.

ADULTSWILD:  JUVENILES. FARM:  LARVAE.

SPAWNERSWILD:  LARVAE. FARM: tank covered 95% with cloth for shading 2. For details of holding systems crit. 1 and 2.




8  Stress

Farming involves subjecting the species to diverse procedures (e.g., handling, air exposure, short-term confinement, short-term crowding, transport), sudden parameter changes or repeated disturbances (e.g., husbandry, size-grading).

What is the probability of the species not being stressed?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: no data found yet.

JUVENILES: stressed by air exposure 34 35, water acidification 36 and during transport 3 37. For stress and temperature crit. 3.

ADULTS: stressed by air exposure 34 35, water acidification 36, limited space 38 and during transport 3 37. For stress and temperature crit. 3.

SPAWNERS: no data found yet.




9  Malformations

Deformities that – in contrast to diseases – are commonly irreversible may indicate sub-optimal rearing conditions (e.g., mechanical stress during hatching and rearing, environmental factors unless mentioned in crit. 3, aquatic pollutants, nutritional deficiencies) or a general incompatibility of the species with being farmed.

What is the probability of the species being malformed rarely?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a low amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

LARVAE: malformations of jaw 28. Further research needed on frequency of malformations.

JUVENILES: malformations of jaw, operculum, and vertebral column 12 39. Further research needed on frequency of malformations.

ADULTS: malformations of jaw, operculum, vertebral column 12 39, and gonads 40. Further research needed on frequency of malformations.




10  Slaughter

The cornerstone for a humane treatment is that slaughter a) immediately follows stunning (i.e., while the individual is unconscious), b) happens according to a clear and reproducible set of instructions verified under farming conditions, and c) avoids pain, suffering, and distress.

What is the probability of the species being slaughtered according to a humane slaughter protocol?

It is low for minimal farming conditions. It is medium for high-standard farming conditions. Our conclusion is based on a medium amount of evidence.

Likelihoodscore-li
Potentialscore-po
Certaintyscore-ce

Common slaughter method: individually netted and bled 41. High-standard slaughter method: fastest unconsciousness via electrical stunning 42 43 44, but contradictory findings 45. Further research needed to confirm for farming conditions.




Side note: Domestication

Teletchea and Fontaine introduced 5 domestication levels illustrating how far species are from having their life cycle closed in captivity without wild input, how long they have been reared in captivity, and whether breeding programmes are in place.

What is the species’ domestication level?

DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 46, level 5 being fully domesticated.




Side note: Forage fish in the feed

450-1,000 milliard wild-caught fishes end up being processed into fish meal and fish oil each year which contributes to overfishing and represents enormous suffering. There is a broad range of feeding types within species reared in captivity.

To what degree may fish meal and fish oil based on forage fish be replaced by non-forage fishery components (e.g., poultry blood meal) or sustainable sources (e.g., soybean cake)?

All age classes: WILD: carnivorous 9 47. FARM: fish meal and fish oil may be partly* replaced by non-forage fishery components 48 49 50 51 52.

*partly = <51% – mostly = 51-99% – completely = 100%




Glossary


ADULTS = mature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
DOMESTICATION LEVEL 4 = entire life cycle closed in captivity without wild inputs 46
EURYHALINE = tolerant of a wide range of salinities
FARM = setting in farming environment or under conditions simulating farming environment in terms of size of facility or number of individuals
FINGERLINGS = early juveniles with fully developed scales and working fins, the size of a human finger; for details Findings 10.1 Ontogentic development
IND = individuals
JUVENILES = fully developed but immature individuals, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
LAB = setting in laboratory environment
LARVAE = hatching to mouth opening, for details Findings 10.1 Ontogenetic development
OCEANODROMOUS = living and migrating in the sea
PELAGIC = living independent of bottom and shore of a body of water
PHOTOPERIOD = duration of daylight
SPAWNERS = adults during the spawning season; in farms: adults that are kept as broodstock
WILD = setting in the wild



Bibliography


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